Career Guide

Government & Policy Track

NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

NOAA is the single largest employer of marine scientists in the United States. ~12,000 employees across six line offices.

Key Divisions for Marine/Wildlife Biologists

• National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) / NOAA Fisheries: The biggest employer of marine biologists in the federal government. Manages fisheries, protects marine mammals and endangered species under the Marine Mammal Protection Act and Endangered Species Act. Six regional science centers (Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, Northwest, Alaska, Pacific Islands).
  • Roles: stock assessment scientist, fisheries biologist, marine mammal biologist, habitat restoration specialist, protected resources biologist
  • Entry: GS-5 to GS-9 depending on education (BS = GS-5/7, MS = GS-9, PhD = GS-11)
• National Ocean Service (NOS): Coastal science, mapping, sanctuaries.
  • Includes the National Marine Sanctuary System (manages 15 national marine sanctuaries)
  • Roles: sanctuary research coordinator, coastal ecologist, resource protection specialist
• Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR): More research-focused.
  • Runs NOAA labs and cooperative institutes
  • Roles: research scientist, oceanographer
• NOAA Corps: Commissioned officer corps (one of seven uniformed services). Officers operate NOAA ships and aircraft and can serve in scientific roles. Competitive entry, requires US citizenship and a STEM degree. Good pay and benefits, and you get to go to sea on NOAA research vessels.

How People Get Into NOAA

1. NOAA Pathways Program: For current students and recent graduates. The #1 pipeline for entry-level hiring.
2. NOAA EPP/MSI (Educational Partnership Program): Specifically for students at Minority-Serving Institutions. Full scholarship + stipend for MS/PhD students.
3. Knauss Fellowship (see below): Many Knauss fellows land permanent NOAA positions.
4. Competitive service (USAJobs): Direct hire. Be persistent — federal hiring is slow and opaque.
5. NOAA cooperative institutes: Universities that partner with NOAA (e.g., CIMAS at U of Miami, CIRES at CU Boulder, JISAO/CICOES at UW). These are university positions funded by NOAA and are often a stepping stone to permanent federal positions.

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS)

Key Roles

• Wildlife Biologist (GS-0486 series)
• Fish Biologist (GS-0482 series)
• Ecologist (GS-0408 series)
• Refuge Manager
• Endangered Species Biologist

GS Pay Scale for Wildlife Biologists (2024–2025, Base + Typical Locality Adjustment)

GS Level	Typical Entry Requirements	Base Salary Range (2024)	With DC Locality (~33%)
GS-5	BS with qualifying coursework	$35,947–$46,731	~$47,800–$62,150
GS-7	BS + 1 yr experience or Superior Academic Achievement	$39,576–$51,446	~$52,600–$68,400
GS-9	MS or BS + 2 yrs experience	$48,809–$63,454	~$64,900–$84,400
GS-11	PhD or MS + 1 yr experience	$59,319–$77,112	~$78,900–$102,500
GS-12	Journey level (full performance)	$71,099–$92,429	~$94,500–$122,900
GS-13	Senior/team lead	$84,546–$109,908	~$112,400–$146,100
GS-14	Branch/program chief	$99,908–$129,878	~$132,900–$172,700
GS-15	Division chief/senior advisor	$117,518–$152,771	~$156,300–$191,900*

*Capped at Executive Level IV (~$191,900 in 2024)

Locality pay matters enormously. A GS-12 in Washington DC earns ~$94K; the same GS-12 in rural Montana earns ~$77K. However, cost of living differences often more than offset this.

Career progression: Typical path is GS-5/7/9 (developmental) → GS-11 (full performance for MS-level) → GS-12 (full performance for PhD-level or experienced MS) → GS-13 (supervisory or senior specialist). Moving from GS-13 to GS-14+ usually requires supervisory responsibilities or moving into program management.

Benefits of federal employment: Exceptional health insurance, FERS retirement (pension + TSP with 5% match), job security, paid leave (13–26 days/year depending on tenure + 13 sick days), student loan repayment programs (up to $10K/year in some agencies).

EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)

• Environmental Scientist (GS-0028 series)
• Biologist (GS-0401 series)
• Roles focus on regulatory science: water quality, wetlands permitting (Section 404 of Clean Water Act), ecological risk assessment, TMDL development
• Less field research, more regulatory and policy
• Entry typically at GS-7/9 with MS
• Same GS pay scale as above

State Agencies

Examples of major state agencies that employ marine/wildlife biologists:

• Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW): One of the largest state wildlife agencies. Heavy focus on salmon recovery, Puget Sound ecosystem, big game management. Entry salary for Fish & Wildlife Biologist 2: ~$52K–$68K (2024).
• California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW): Massive agency. Marine, freshwater, terrestrial. Environmental Scientist range: ~$50K–$95K depending on level.
• Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW): Strong fisheries and marine programs.
• Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G): Unique opportunities in remote settings. Salmon, marine mammals, bears.
• Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC): Marine and terrestrial. Manatees, sea turtles, fisheries.

State agencies tend to pay 10–30% less than federal equivalents but offer more direct hands-on wildlife management experience. They are excellent for people who want to stay in one region and do applied work.

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Regional Science Centers

NMFS is the premier federal agency for marine biology careers. Their six regional science centers are:

1. Northeast Fisheries Science Center (Woods Hole, MA and other labs)
2. Southeast Fisheries Science Center (Miami, FL; Beaufort, NC; Panama City, FL; Galveston, TX)
3. Southwest Fisheries Science Center (La Jolla, CA; Santa Cruz, CA)
4. Northwest Fisheries Science Center (Seattle, WA; Newport, OR)
5. Alaska Fisheries Science Center (Seattle, WA; Juneau, AK; Kodiak, AK) — largest of the six
6. Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (Honolulu, HI)

Each center employs hundreds of biologists doing stock assessments, marine mammal surveys, ecosystem modeling, genetics, and more.

International Organizations

• IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature): Based in Gland, Switzerland. Manages the Red List. Roles in species assessment, protected area policy, marine/freshwater programs. Highly competitive. Often requires PhD + field experience + policy experience. Salary varies by location but is generally comparable to UN scales.
• UN Environment Programme (UNEP): Nairobi, Kenya HQ. Regional seas programs, coral reef initiatives, pollution. Professional positions (P-2 through P-5) range from ~$55K to $130K+ depending on duty station and experience. Entry usually requires MS + 2+ years or PhD.
• WWF (World Wildlife Fund) — Policy side: WWF International (Gland, Switzerland) and WWF-US (Washington, DC). Policy analysts, marine program officers, campaign managers. Salary range for mid-level policy roles: $65K–$100K at WWF-US.
• Conservation International, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS): Similar roles and pay to WWF.

Congressional Fellowships

• AAAS Science & Technology Policy Fellowship: One-year fellowships (renewable for a second year) placing scientists in Congressional offices, federal agencies, or the judiciary. Stipend: ~$100K–$115K (2024–2025). One of the most transformative career experiences for a scientist interested in policy. Requires PhD + 3+ years post-PhD experience. About 30 Congressional placements/year from ~300 applicants.
• Knauss Marine Policy Fellowship: Run by NOAA Sea Grant. Places MS/PhD students in Congressional offices, federal agencies, or DC-based organizations for one year. Stipend: ~$60,000–$65,000 + benefits (2024–2025). This is the single best pipeline into marine policy careers in DC. ~80 fellows/year. Many Knauss fellows end up in permanent positions at NOAA, Capitol Hill, or marine policy organizations. Extremely highly regarded in the marine science community.
• Presidential Management Fellowship (PMF): Two-year federal fellowship for recent graduate degree holders. GS-9 to GS-12 level. Leads to conversion to permanent federal position. Very competitive (~7% acceptance rate).

Military / Intelligence

• Navy Marine Mammal Program (NMMP): Based in San Diego. Trains dolphins and sea lions for mine detection, port security, and equipment recovery. Employs civilian marine mammal biologists and trainers. Small program but unique. Salary range: $50K–$90K for civilian positions.
• Environmental compliance officers: Every military installation must comply with environmental law (NEPA, ESA, Clean Water Act). DOD employs thousands of environmental scientists and biologists at bases worldwide. Often contracted through firms like AECOM, Booz Allen Hamilton, or Leidos.
• Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO): Stennis Space Center, MS. Ocean modeling, bathymetry, marine biology surveys for naval operations.
• Intelligence community: NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) and NOAA have overlap in satellite remote sensing of ocean environments. Niche but well-paying.

Industry & Private Sector Track

Environmental Consulting Firms

The “Big 4” of Environmental Consulting (for Biology/Ecology)

1. AECOM — One of the world's largest infrastructure consulting firms. Employs thousands of biologists for NEPA compliance, ESA consultations, wetland delineations, marine surveys. Revenue ~$14B. Global.
2. Stantec — Canadian firm, very strong in North America. Known for good culture and work on major infrastructure projects. Revenue ~$4B.
3. Tetra Tech — Strong in water resources and environmental remediation. Revenue ~$4B.
4. WSP — Global firm. Strong in transportation environmental compliance.

Other major firms: ICF International, HDR, Jacobs, Cardno (now Stantec), ERM, Arcadis, GHD, Kleinfelder, Anchor QEA, Parametrix (Pacific NW focused).

What consultants do: NEPA environmental impact statements (EIS), Endangered Species Act Section 7 consultations, wetland delineations, marine mammal monitoring (especially for offshore energy/construction), fish passage design, habitat restoration design, environmental permitting.

Salary Ranges in Environmental Consulting (2024–2025)

Level	Years Experience	Salary Range
Staff Biologist/Scientist	0–3 years	$45,000–$60,000
Project Biologist	3–6 years	$55,000–$75,000
Senior Biologist	6–10 years	$70,000–$95,000
Project Manager	8–15 years	$85,000–$120,000
Senior Project Manager / Associate	12–20 years	$100,000–$145,000
Principal / Vice President	15+ years	$130,000–$200,000+

Biotech Companies Working with Marine Organisms

• Genomatica: Uses marine microbes for biomanufacturing
• Synthetic Genomics (now Viridos): Algae-based biofuels, co-founded by Craig Venter
• Cellana: Algae-based nutrition and biofuels
• Mote Marine Laboratory also has a biotech arm
• New England Biolabs: Uses marine enzymes
• Codexis: Enzyme engineering, some marine-derived

Salary: Biotech scientist roles typically $65K–$110K with BS/MS, $100K–$150K+ with PhD.

Aquaculture Industry

This is one of the fastest-growing sectors. Global aquaculture production now exceeds wild-caught fisheries. The U.S. is investing heavily in domestic aquaculture to reduce its ~$17B seafood trade deficit.

Key Companies and Organizations

• AquaBounty Technologies: First FDA-approved genetically engineered salmon (AquAdvantage). Based in Maynard, MA with farms in Indiana and Canada.
• Atlantic Sapphire: Land-based salmon farming in Miami. One of the largest land-based aquaculture facilities in the world.
• Kampachi Farms: Open-ocean aquaculture R&D in Hawaii
• Innovasea: Aquaculture technology (fish tracking, cage systems, water quality monitoring)
• Blue Ocean Mariculture: Open-ocean fish farming in Hawaii
• Cooke Aquaculture: Major salmon farming company (Canada/US/international)
• The Nature Conservancy's aquaculture program: Restorative aquaculture (oysters, seaweed)
• GreenWave: Regenerative ocean farming nonprofit/social enterprise (kelp, shellfish)

Roles: Aquaculture biologist, fish health veterinarian, production manager, water quality specialist, genetics/breeding specialist, hatchery manager.

Salary range: $40K–$65K entry level; $60K–$90K mid-career; $90K–$140K+ for managers/directors at larger operations. Fish health veterinarians (DVM) can earn $90K–$150K+.

Pharmaceutical / Marine Natural Products

• Marine organisms have yielded several FDA-approved drugs (e.g., Yondelis from sea squirts, Halaven from marine sponge compounds, Prialt from cone snail venom)
• PharmaMar (Spain): Leading company in marine-derived pharmaceuticals
• Research typically happens in academic labs (e.g., Scripps, University of Utah for cone snail toxins) and then gets licensed to pharma companies
• This is a PhD-track career, usually in marine natural products chemistry or marine pharmacology
• Salary follows pharma industry norms: $90K–$130K for PhD-level scientists at entry, $130K–$200K+ for experienced scientists

Tech Companies (Ocean Technology)

This is a rapidly expanding area:

• Saildrone: Uncrewed surface vehicles for ocean data collection. Based in Alameda, CA. Used by NOAA for fisheries surveys and environmental monitoring. Hiring marine scientists who can design surveys and interpret data.
• Liquid Robotics (Boeing subsidiary): Wave Glider autonomous ocean vehicles
• Sofar Ocean: Ocean sensing and forecasting (Sofar Spotter buoys)
• Terradepth: Autonomous underwater data collection
• Hexagon/Leica: Bathymetric and marine survey equipment
• Esri: GIS software used universally in marine and wildlife biology. Employs marine/environmental scientists in product development and technical support.
• Planet Labs: Satellite imagery used for marine habitat monitoring
• Ocean Infinity: Robotic marine survey company

eDNA (Environmental DNA)

• Jonah Ventures: eDNA analysis services (biodiversity assessment from water/soil samples)
• Smith-Root: eDNA sampling equipment
• Precision Biomonitoring
• This is a booming subfield. Being trained in eDNA methods and bioinformatics is increasingly valuable.

Salary range for ocean tech: $60K–$90K for entry-level scientists/engineers; $90K–$140K for mid-career; $120K–$200K+ for senior roles at well-funded companies. Tech-adjacent roles pay significantly more than traditional biology roles.

Oil & Gas Environmental Compliance

• All offshore oil/gas operations must comply with NEPA, ESA, MMPA, and numerous other environmental laws
• Companies like Shell, BP, Chevron, ExxonMobil all employ or contract marine biologists for environmental impact assessments, marine mammal observer programs, and spill response
• Marine mammal observers (MMOs): Deployed on seismic survey vessels, construction vessels, etc. to watch for whales/dolphins. Entry-level position, often seasonal. Pay: $250–$500/day. Good way to build sea time and field experience.
• More experienced roles in environmental compliance: $70K–$120K+
• Controversy: Many marine biologists have ethical concerns about working for oil/gas. This is a personal decision.

Renewable Energy (Offshore Wind)

This is the single fastest-growing employer of marine biologists in the private sector right now (2024–2026).

The U.S. has massive offshore wind development planned: 30 GW by 2030 (Biden administration goal). Every project requires years of environmental surveys and monitoring.

Key Companies

• Orsted: Danish company, largest offshore wind developer. Major projects on U.S. East Coast.
• Vineyard Wind: First large-scale U.S. offshore wind farm (off MA coast)
• Equinor: Norwegian energy company with major U.S. offshore wind portfolio
• Avangrid / Iberdrola: Park City Wind, Commonwealth Wind
• Dominion Energy: Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind project

Environmental consulting firms doing offshore wind work: RPS Group, Biodiversity Research Institute, New England Aquarium (consulting arm), Stantec, AECOM, Tetra Tech, JASCO Applied Sciences (acoustics).

Roles: Marine mammal observer, passive acoustic monitoring analyst, avian biologist (bird surveys), benthic ecologist, fisheries liaison, environmental compliance manager.

Salary: Entry-level field positions $45K–$65K; mid-career scientists $70K–$100K; senior environmental managers $100K–$150K+.

Nonprofit & Conservation Track

Large International/National Nonprofits

The Nature Conservancy (TNC)

The world's largest conservation nonprofit (~$1.5B annual revenue). 4,000+ employees in 79 countries. Marine programs globally. Highly professionalized. Pay is competitive for nonprofits.

Level	Salary Range
Entry-level conservation practitioner/scientist	$45K–$55K
Program manager/senior scientist	$65K–$95K
Director-level	$90K–$140K
VP/C-suite	$150K–$300K+

World Wildlife Fund (WWF-US)

~$300M annual revenue. Marine programs include Arctic, coral reefs, fisheries. DC headquarters + field offices.

Level	Salary Range
Program officer	$55K–$75K
Senior program officer	$75K–$100K
Director	$100K–$140K

Ocean Conservancy

DC-based. Focuses on ocean policy, trash free seas, Arctic. ~$30M budget. Staff of ~80.

Level	Salary Range
Scientist/policy analyst	$55K–$80K
Senior scientist	$80K–$110K

Oceana

The largest international organization focused solely on ocean conservation. DC + international. ~$60M budget. Very policy-focused. Similar salary ranges to Ocean Conservancy.

Environmental Defense Fund (EDF)

Known for market-based approaches. Strong fisheries program. Pays well for a nonprofit.

Level	Salary Range
Scientists	$65K–$100K
Senior	$90K–$140K

Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)

Runs the Bronx Zoo, NY Aquarium, and conservation programs in 60+ countries. Field biologists in some of the most remote places on Earth.

Level	Salary Range
Field researcher	$40K–$60K (but often in low cost-of-living areas)
Program manager	$60K–$90K

Aquariums and Marine Science Education Centers

Monterey Bay Aquarium

One of the premier institutions. Research arm is closely linked with MBARI. Conservation and policy programs are nationally influential. Jobs here are coveted.

Role	Salary Range
Aquarist	$45K–$60K
Research biologist	$55K–$80K
Education programs	$40K–$65K
Senior scientist/director	$80K–$130K

Other Major Aquariums

• New England Aquarium: Strong marine conservation and research programs. North Atlantic right whale research. Anderson Cabot Center for Ocean Life.
• Shedd Aquarium (Chicago): Major public aquarium with research programs.
• Georgia Aquarium (Atlanta): Largest aquarium in the Western Hemisphere. Research and conservation programs.
• National Aquarium (Baltimore): Conservation programs, animal rescue.
• Seattle Aquarium: Expanding with new Ocean Pavilion (opening 2024–2025). Growing conservation programs.

Smaller/Regional Organizations

• Defenders of Wildlife: Policy-focused. ESA advocacy. DC based.
• Center for Biological Diversity: Litigation-focused conservation. Often uses lawsuits to enforce ESA. Employs scientists as expert witnesses and for scientific petitions.
• Earthjustice: Environmental law nonprofit. Employs scientists in supporting roles.
• Surfrider Foundation: Coastal conservation.
• Coral Restoration Foundation: Hands-on coral reef restoration in the Florida Keys.
• Marine Conservation Institute: Protected area advocacy.
• Blue Marine Foundation: UK-based but growing internationally.

Types of Roles in Nonprofits

1. Field Research: Running surveys, monitoring populations, collecting data. Often seasonal or project-based at smaller organizations. More stable at large organizations.
2. Policy/Advocacy: Analyzing legislation, meeting with Congressional staff, writing policy briefs, representing the organization in regulatory processes (e.g., fishery management council meetings). Requires ability to translate science for policymakers.
3. Education/Outreach: Designing curriculum, running public programs, managing volunteer programs, social media/communications. Lower pay ceiling but high job satisfaction for many.
4. Fundraising/Development: Grant writing, donor cultivation, campaign management. This is where the money is in nonprofits, literally. Development directors at large nonprofits earn $100K–$200K+. A biology background combined with fundraising skills is extremely valuable.
5. Program Management: Overseeing multi-year conservation projects, managing teams, budgets, and partnerships. This is where most nonprofit careers lead.

How Nonprofit Intersects with Government and Academia

The boundaries are highly permeable. Many careers zigzag across sectors:

• Academic researchers get grants to work on projects defined by nonprofits
• Nonprofit scientists collaborate with government agencies on species recovery plans
• Government biologists retire and join nonprofits (and vice versa)
• The “revolving door” between NOAA/USFWS and organizations like TNC, EDF, and Oceana is well-established
• Many nonprofit scientists publish in peer-reviewed journals and hold adjunct academic appointments

Emerging & Non-Traditional Paths

Science Communication and Journalism

The demand for science communicators with actual scientific training has never been higher.

• Staff science writer/editor at a publication: Salary $50K–$90K (Science, Nature, The Atlantic, National Geographic, Hakai Magazine, Mongabay)
• Institutional science communicator: Universities, research institutions, agencies, and nonprofits all need science writers. Salary $50K–$80K.
• Freelance science journalist: Highly variable. Top freelancers earn $60K–$100K+, but it takes years to build. Outlets that cover ocean/wildlife: Hakai Magazine, Mongabay, The Revelator, National Geographic, Undark.
• Podcasting/YouTube: Ed Yong, Deep Look (PBS), Minute Earth, Atlas Obscura — science content creators are building sustainable careers. Revenue from sponsorships, Patreon, and media deals.
• Documentary filmmaking: BBC Natural History Unit, Netflix nature docs (Our Planet), National Geographic. Competitive but a biology degree is a genuine differentiator.
• Relevant training: UC Santa Cruz Science Communication Program (the most prestigious 1-year program), MIT Knight Science Journalism Fellowship, AAAS Mass Media Fellowship (summer placement — excellent for undergrads/grad students).

Environmental Law (JD + Biology)

A biology degree + law degree is one of the most powerful and lucrative combinations in conservation.

• Earthjustice: The largest environmental law nonprofit. Salary for staff attorneys: $75K–$140K depending on experience and location.
• Center for Biological Diversity: Heavy litigation focus.
• Federal agencies: NOAA General Counsel, DOI Solicitor's Office, EPA Office of General Counsel. These offices need lawyers who understand the science.
• Private environmental law firms: Represent clients in ESA, Clean Water Act, NEPA cases. Partner-track lawyers at firms like Beveridge & Diamond, Van Ness Feldman: $130K–$300K+.
• In-house counsel for energy/industry: Environmental compliance lawyers at Shell, Orsted, etc. earn $120K–$250K+.
• Timeline: 4 years BS + 3 years JD = 7 years. Some do the JD straight after undergrad; others work in biology first and then go to law school (often stronger candidates because they have field credibility).

Data Science Applied to Ecology

This is perhaps the single highest-ROI skill combination for a biology-oriented student.

• Ecological modeling, species distribution modeling, population viability analysis, climate change impact projections — all require strong quantitative skills
• R programming is the lingua franca of ecology. Python is increasingly important. SQL and machine learning frameworks (TensorFlow, PyTorch) are bonuses.
• Job titles: quantitative ecologist, data scientist (conservation), computational biologist, biostatistician
• Employers: NOAA (stock assessment modelers are in very high demand), USGS, academic labs, The Nature Conservancy (data science team), WCS, Microsoft AI for Earth / AI for Good, Google Environmental Insights
• Salary: Data science roles pay significantly more than traditional biology: $75K–$120K with MS, $100K–$160K+ with PhD. In tech: $120K–$200K+.
• Key advantage: Quantitative ecologists are in much higher demand than field ecologists relative to supply. A student who can do both fieldwork and advanced statistics/programming is extremely competitive.

Remote Sensing and GIS Specialization

• GIS (Geographic Information Systems) is used in virtually all branches of marine and wildlife biology: habitat mapping, species distribution, conservation planning, marine spatial planning
• Remote sensing: Satellite imagery analysis for land cover change, ocean color/productivity, ice extent, deforestation, coral bleaching monitoring
• Key tools: ArcGIS Pro, QGIS, Google Earth Engine, R spatial packages (sf, terra, raster), Python geospatial libraries (geopandas, rasterio)
• Employers: USGS (EROS Data Center), NASA (applied sciences), NOAA (satellite operations), Esri, Planet Labs, conservation nonprofits, consulting firms
• Salary: GIS analysts $50K–$75K; GIS specialists/developers $65K–$100K; remote sensing scientists $70K–$120K; senior roles $100K–$140K+
• Certification: Esri Technical Certification, GISP (GIS Professional) certification

Conservation Genetics and Genomics

One of the hottest subfields in conservation biology. Using genomic tools to inform species management: population genetics, landscape genetics, metagenomics, eDNA, gene editing for conservation (genetic rescue, gene drives).

• Key labs: Revive & Restore (de-extinction/genetic rescue), San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance (Frozen Zoo), Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, NOAA genetics labs
• Applications: Identifying distinct population segments for ESA listing, combating wildlife trafficking (DNA forensics at USFWS National Fish and Wildlife Forensics Laboratory in Ashland, OR), assessing connectivity, managing genetic diversity in captive breeding programs
• Training needed: MS or PhD in conservation genetics/genomics. Bioinformatics skills are essential (command-line computing, Python, R, genome assembly and annotation tools).
• Salary: Follows academic or government tracks mostly. Genetics-trained biologists command a premium in both academia and government because the skills are in high demand.

Blue Economy Entrepreneurship

• Kelp farming: Growing industry. Companies like Atlantic Sea Farms (Maine) turning kelp into food products. GreenWave provides training and support for regenerative ocean farmers.
• Carbon credits / blue carbon: Mangrove restoration, seagrass restoration, and kelp farming generate carbon credits that can be sold. Emerging market with significant growth potential.
• Sustainable seafood: Platforms like Dock to Dish (community-supported fishery), Sitka Salmon Shares. Merging marine biology knowledge with business.
• Ocean plastics / cleanup technology: The Ocean Cleanup (Boyan Slat's organization), 4ocean, Parley for the Oceans.
• Ecotourism: Whale watching operations, diving operations, nature guiding. Many marine biologists run or consult for ecotourism businesses. Income varies wildly but successful operators in good locations (Hawaii, Alaska, Baja California) can do well.

Science Policy Advising

• Working in science policy without being in government: think tanks, NAS (National Academies of Sciences), AAAS, science policy consulting
• Specific organizations: Ocean Studies Board (NAS), Pew Research Center, Resources for the Future, Center for American Progress (environmental policy), Bipartisan Policy Center
• Often requires PhD + fellowship experience (Knauss, AAAS, or similar)
• Salary: $65K–$120K depending on organization and seniority

The Undergraduate-to-Career Pipeline

What to do during undergrad to maximize options.

Year-by-Year Roadmap

REUs (Research Experiences for Undergraduates)

NSF-funded REUs are the gold standard of undergraduate research experiences. They provide:

• 10-week summer research experience at a host institution
• Stipend (~$6,000–$7,000 for 10 weeks)
• Housing and travel allowance
• Mentorship from faculty and graduate students
• Cohort experience with other undergraduate researchers

Top Marine/Wildlife Biology REU Programs

• Mote Marine Laboratory (Sarasota, FL) — marine biology
• Friday Harbor Laboratories (UW) — marine biology
• Shoals Marine Laboratory (UNH/Cornell) — marine science
• Hatfield Marine Science Center (Oregon State) — marine biology
• Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC) — estuarine ecology
• Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL) — terrestrial ecology
• Archbold Biological Station (FL) — ecology and conservation
• Bodega Marine Laboratory (UC Davis) — marine ecology
• Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology — tropical marine biology
• Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences (ME) — marine microbiology/biogeochemistry

How to find them: NSF REU site search (nsf.gov/crssprgm/reu/), Pathways to Science, Texas A&M's list of marine science REUs.

Application Tips

• Apply to 8–12 programs (acceptance rates are typically 5–15%)
• Strong applications have: good GPA, a clear statement of interest in research, prior lab experience (even informal), strong faculty recommendation letter
• Deadlines are typically early–mid February
• Being from a school without a strong research program is actually an advantage — NSF REUs specifically aim to reach students who wouldn't otherwise have research access

Summer Internships at Key Organizations

Beyond REUs, other excellent summer opportunities:

• NOAA Hollings Scholarship: Provides tuition support ($9,500/year for 2 years) PLUS a paid 10-week NOAA internship. Apply sophomore year. One of the best undergraduate programs in marine science. ~120 scholars/year.
• NOAA Ernest F. Hollings & EPP/MSI Undergraduate Scholarship Programs
• Smithsonian Internship Programs: Positions at the National Zoo, National Museum of Natural History, SERC, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (Panama).
• USFWS Directorate Resource Assistant Fellows Program (DFP): Paid 11-week internship at USFWS offices/refuges. Outstanding pipeline to federal employment.
• Student Conservation Association (SCA): Internships at national parks, forests, wildlife refuges. Some of the best field experience available. Many are paid (AmeriCorps-style stipend + housing).
• California Academy of Sciences REU and internships
• Monterey Bay Aquarium internships
• The Nature Conservancy internships
• Sea Grant state programs: Most coastal states have Sea Grant programs that offer funded undergraduate research opportunities.

Field Experience and Certifications

Certifications that make you more competitive:

1. SCUBA certification: Open Water as minimum. Advanced Open Water, Rescue Diver, and especially AAUS Scientific Diver certification are highly valued. Many marine biology programs (e.g., UCSB, UNC Wilmington, UCSC) offer scientific diving courses. The AAUS (American Academy of Underwater Sciences) certification is the standard for research diving in the U.S.
2. Boating: USCG-approved boating safety course. State boating license. Experience operating small boats (skiffs, inflatables) is hugely valuable for marine fieldwork. Many field jobs require a motorboat operator certification.
3. GIS certification: Esri has a certification program. Taking at least one GIS course is nearly essential for any biology career path. ArcGIS Pro is the industry standard; QGIS is the open-source alternative.
4. R programming: Take a biostatistics course that uses R. Supplement with online resources. Being proficient in R is expected in most graduate programs and many entry-level jobs.
5. First Aid / Wilderness First Responder (WFR): WFR certification (80-hour course, offered by NOLS Wilderness Medicine and others) is required or strongly preferred for most field positions in remote areas. Good for 3 years. Worth getting before applying for field jobs.
6. Drone pilot (FAA Part 107): Increasingly used in wildlife surveys (counting seabird colonies, whale photogrammetry, habitat mapping). Getting Part 107 certified as an undergrad is a nice differentiator.
7. Other specialized skills: Bird banding certification, electrofishing certification, PIT tag training, acoustic telemetry experience, marine mammal stranding response training, vegetation survey protocols (relevé, point-intercept).

When Does Specialization Matter?

• Undergrad: Stay broad. Take ecology, evolution, genetics, physiology, statistics, chemistry, physics. Dabble in marine AND terrestrial AND freshwater systems. Don't close doors early.
• Post-bacc / technician years: Start developing expertise in a system or taxon. Work with the organisms that excite you.
• MS: Moderate specialization. You'll focus on a specific question but maintain breadth.
• PhD: Deep specialization. You're becoming the world's expert on a specific topic. But the best PhD students maintain breadth in their skills and knowledge even as their research focus narrows.
• Postdoc: Often used to add a complementary specialization (e.g., a field ecologist adds genomics, or a lab geneticist does fieldwork).

Bottom line: Employers and graduate programs want T-shaped people — broad knowledge base with deep expertise in one area. For undergrad, focus on the broad base.

MS vs PhD: When Is Each the Right Choice?

Master's Degree (MS)

Choose an MS if:

• You want to work in government (GS-9 entry with MS is standard for NOAA, USFWS)
• You want to work in environmental consulting
• You want to work at a state agency
• You're not sure you want 5–7 more years of graduate school
• You want to work in the applied side of conservation
• You want to test the waters of research before committing to a PhD
• You want to pivot into a new subfield before a PhD

Duration: 2–3 years. Some programs are funded (with teaching/research assistantship); many are not, especially terminal MS programs. Avoid going into significant debt for an MS — look for funded positions or programs at institutions with strong funding.

Key point: In many government and consulting careers, the MS is the terminal degree. A PhD provides no additional salary benefit and may even be seen as overqualified.

Doctoral Degree (PhD)

Choose a PhD if:

• You want a faculty position (requires PhD, full stop)
• You want to lead your own research program
• You want to reach the highest levels of federal science (GS-13+ research positions often require PhD)
• You're passionate about a specific research question
• You want to work in a field that requires advanced quantitative skills (stock assessment, population modeling)
• You want to work in policy at the highest levels (NAS, Congressional advisory roles, AAAS fellowship)

Duration: 4–7 years. Should ALWAYS be fully funded (tuition + stipend). Never pay for a PhD in biology. If a program doesn't offer full funding, it's not a real offer.

Key distinction: A PhD is a research apprenticeship, not just more coursework. You learn to conceive, design, execute, and communicate original research. The dissertation itself may be less important than the skills and network you develop.

The “MS then PhD” Path vs “Straight to PhD”

Both are valid:

• Straight to PhD after BS: Common, especially at top programs. Saves time. You can often earn an MS along the way if you leave the program early.
• MS first, then PhD: Gives you field experience, helps clarify interests, makes your PhD application much stronger, and lets you “test” whether you like research enough to commit to 5+ more years. Many PhD advisors prefer students with MS degrees because they're more independent and have realistic expectations.